Police Officer, The Chief Of Police - 2166 Words

When it comes to police officer disciplinary actions, the lines becomes thin and more difficult to read between. It is not such a black and white situation and when it comes to properly disciplining a police officer it can become difficult to do so especially when that officer has either been on the force a long time so there is an established relationship, or the inappropriate act they committed happened just once and they claim it will never happen again. These types of things make it much harder to decide what the right discipline may be for that officer. As the Chief of Police, the Deputy Chief of Police advises me that one of my officers is being investigated for inappropriate behavior. This police officer is under investigation for watching pornographic websites on the company computers. When he is confronted with the allegation, the officer denies this allegation but upon further investigation the computer crimes analyst proves that it was this officer that was using the computer to access these websites. When confronted with this information, the officer then admits to the wrongdoing but claims he will never do it again. This officer has only been in trouble once before over ten years ago for a traffic violation and is otherwise a good officer. As the Chief of Police it is now my decision to choose whether this officer should be terminated of his duties or if he should face severe disciplinary actions. It is a difficult decision to make as disciplinary actions areShow MoreRelatedThe Importance Of A Sound Experiment For The Uk Association Of Chief Police Officers Essay1130 Words   |  5 Pagesnetwork code, as well as any SMS messages, and much more useful information. I. How to Perform a Sound Experiment There is a guideline proposed by the UK Association of Chief Police Officers (ACPO) that defines some rules for the handling of digital evidence [10]. The device must be kept separate from the network, and the investigation process should be properly planned. The functionality of the tool or software must be known also for having a secure wireless connection with device in order notRead MoreCriminal Justice: Ethics and Integrity676 Words   |  3 Pagesintegrity are important to a police chief or county sheriff in a number of ways. First, ethics and integrity assist a police chief or a county sheriff to recruit the best officers who can work in their departments. It is only through application of the principles of ethics and integrity that a police chief or a county sheriff can identify these qualities in the potential applicants, and use them in the recruitment process. Second, ethics and integrity are important to a police chief or a county sheriff becauseRead MoreThe United Stat es1465 Words   |  6 PagesHowever, in some cities law enforcement has been unable to ensure consistent protection for citizens, due to lack of resources. The budget cuts in California dating back to 2008 are still negatively affecting cities in the state. For example, Oakland Police Department cut back on traffic stops, drug investigation, property crime, and community policing, which is intolerable for the fifth most dangerous city in America. Oakland P.D. is now at the point of relying on the community for assistance becauseRead MoreLack Of Discipline Against The Los Angeles Police Department1624 Words   |  7 Pagesdiscussed in this paper is that there is a lack of discipline against the Los Angeles police officers who engage in misconduct and the use of force. Top officials are not being held accountable for the lack of oversight in order to protect the interest of the department. The second pattern that is discussed is that police claims makers give the public a false sens e of accountability. Instead of accepting accountability, police claim makers give the media unclear answers on what officials are attempting toRead MoreShould A Police Officer Conduct Affected His Job?981 Words   |  4 PagesUnfortunately, nobody is perfect, and police officers also make wrong decisions that could jeopardize the integrity of their police department. Often people do something that they know is wrong. However, they still do it because they feel no harm will come to them or they think nobody would ever find out. For instance, cheating on a test is wrong, but people do it because they think they can get away without the professor finding out. There was a case where a police officer conduct affected his job. On JuneRead MoreSocial971 Words   |  4 Pagescriminal justice include the police, courts, and corrections. As an administrator overseeing the police department would be indeed the hardest of the three. Within a police department the chief of police would be the top administrator and in command of administrating the departments policies to officers, detectives, and supporting staff. This paper will discuss the roles of a chief of police and the negative and positive aspects he or she may endure. As an administrator of a police department, the requirementsRead MoreThe Crime Rate And Police Brutality Rate1178 Words   |  5 PagesThe crime rate and police brutality rate has increased in America in the recent years. A new law is flooding controversy across all 50 states. Should a police officer wear a body camera while on active duty? While many may argue that it is against privacy, I believe that wearing such cameras will lessen such police brutality claims, ensure truth in court scenarios, and protect both the officer and the civilian. The following is an example of a situation. A police officer who is out on patrol seesRead MoreChief Mckinley And Field Training Officers922 Words   |  4 PagesI asked Chief McKinley what positions he felt were the most influential in the department. Chief McKinley believes that Sergeants and Field Training Officers (FTO) are the two most important roles in the department. Both positions are leadership positions and set the culture for the department. Sergeants work closing with patrol and have an influence over them, whether they want to admit it or not. Sergeants must be aware that officers look to them for guidance and mimic their attitude. This is whyRead MoreEssay on August Vollmers Career in Law Enforcement1229 Words   |  5 PagesVollmer was the police chief of Berkeley (CA) Police Department from 1905 to 1932. He served as the first professor of police administration at the University of Chicago from 1929 to 1930, and he was a professor of criminology at the University of California at Berkeley. He served for one year as the police chief of Los Angeles Police Department (1923-1924) and he was the President of the International Association of Chiefs of Police from 1921 to 1922. A progressive-minded chief and a key advocateRead MoreThe Ethics Of Police Officers967 Words   |  4 PagesPolice officers not only have to follow a set of rules and legislation, but they also must behave in a decent manner while on duty as well as off duty. Unfortunately, nobody is perfect, and police officers also make wrong decisions that could jeopardize the integrity of their police department. Often people know something they do is wrong. However, they still do it because they feel no harm will come to them or it they think nobody will ever find out. For instance, cheating on a test is wrong, but

The Effect of Drug and Substance Abuse on Academic Outcomes

EFFECTS OF DRUG ABUSE ON ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE INTRODUCTION Drugs are chemical substances either synthetic or natural when taken that alter the normal physiological functioning of the body. Drug abuse relates to excessive use of psychotropic substances resulting to changes in behavior and normal functioning of the body. This paper looks into the effects of drug abuse (on academic performance), the common drugs abused and ways and means of mitigating the same. It also looks into the common types of drugs abused and the relationship it has on the performance. The paper highlights the causes of abuse among young students being peer pressure, frustrations at home and availability of drugs. This study aimed at filling the gaps that†¦show more content†¦Research suggests at least two potential mechanisms. First, substance use itself may impair cognitive development, which, in turn, reduces academic achievement and disrupts academic progression. Recent studies have shown that heavy adolescent substance use can lead to problems with working memory and attention due to changes in adolescent brain activity. In turn, these memory and attention problems may lead to decreases in academic performance and engagement in school, and ultimately increase risk for school problems and dropout. However, these findings have been reported with heavy drinking and drug-using adolescents and it is unclear whether such effects would emerge at lower levels of use. Moreover, the magnitude and permanence of these effects are unclear in terms of whether they extend to impair academic functioning. For example, studies suggest that withdrawal is an important predictor of the neurocognitive deficits associated with adolescentShow MoreRelatedSubstance Use Disorders ( Suds )1720 Words   |  7 Pagesdetermined that children raised by substance using parents are at an increased risk for developing substance use disorders (SUDs) in adulthood as a result of familial dissemination of substance abuse through both the environments in which the children are raised and genetic susceptibility (Merikangas et al., 1998; Merikangas Avenevoli, 2000). Unfortunately, there is an insignificant amount of literature examining the effects that the combined treatment and recovery of substance abusing paren ts has on theRead MoreEducational Issue Involving Adolescents . Many People Blame1695 Words   |  7 PagesEducational Issue Involving Adolescents Many people blame the parents first thing if a child is having academic issues. However, although the parents do play a major part, they are not the only reason children may be struggling in school. There are many factors that cause educational issues with adolescents in addition to parental involvement. These factors include: peer relations/bullying, substance abuse, young parenthood, technology use, stereotyping, racial judgements, and socioeconomic status. AccordingRead MoreHigh Risk Family Assessment Health Promotion1593 Words   |  6 PagesHigh-Risk Family Assessment Health Promotion Drug and Alcohol Abuse Substance abuse can occur with legal drugs like alcohol, tobacco and prescription medications, illegal drugs that are purchased on the street, or prescription drugs used for reasons other than health. Alcohol is the most frequently used legal drug, and cocaine, heroin, and marijuana are the most commonly used illegal drugs. Each drug has precise effects on body systems. Some drugs can lead to acute and chronic problems; some evenRead MoreSubstance Related Disorders846 Words   |  4 Pagespeople take substances? People abuse substances for many different reasons. Some people take substances because of peer pressure and think that they might be immune, others do it because they are stressed and need something to keep them away from their problems. Some people, specially teenagers take them just for a thrill or curiosity. The truth is, for whatever the reason people start taking substances, the outcome will be that the user will end up with a substance related disorderRead MoreBenefits And Limitations When Prevention Providers Are Looking For Successful Programs Essay1722 Words   |  7 PagesThere are many benefits and limitations when prevention providers are looking for successful programs. The National Institute on Drug Abuse, or NIDA, provides a large research-based guide of the most effective prevention programs. This research should be the number one tool when looking into different types of programs, although it does not include every single program. A common problem in the prevention field consists of registries missing important strategies, including environmental approachesRead MoreThe Psychological Effects Of Adolescent Substance Abuse1469 Words   |  6 PagesAdolescent substance abuse is one of the largest issues faced by our society today. According to Teenrehab.com, nearly 50% of all high school seniors have abused some form of illicit sub stance and according to National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism nearly 70% of 18 year olds have at the least tried alcohol. Many more adolescents are trying, and getting addicted to, drugs every year. In my opinion this is one of the most critical issues that we have to address as a society. Summary Response:Read MorePrevention of Adolescent Drug Addictions1408 Words   |  6 PagesPrevention of Adolescent Drug Addictions Abstract Drug addictions among today’s adolescent is climbing to an all-time high rate. Parents need to become more proactive in the prevention of their children becoming addicted to drugs. However, parents alone cannot handle this overwhelming task, the local schools and the community will need to take action also. Together this is a possible task, team work and consistency will prevail and save adolescents from being drug addicts. Read MoreIn the course of child development, a multitude of factors have severe ramifications on the child’s900 Words   |  4 Pagesfactors exist as potentially mal-adaptive behavior profile variables that influence or interfere with a child’s competency to thrive in their environment. Protective factors, on the other hand, create positive influences on development by negating effects of various risk factors. Both risk and protective factors exist in a variety of forms. Genetic, biological, psychological, familial, and social-cultural influences can be seen on each side. Not only do they exist in a variety of forms, but their abilitiesRead MoreAlcoholism a Social Problem?1593 Words   |  7 Pagesthat was identified in the helping relationship is a return to alcohol use or relapse. The participant in the helping project admitted she had been in substance abuse treatment twice, but was unable to remain abstinent from alcohol use. This, according to her is a relapse , however, Miller (1996) identifies relapse as a return to alcohol and/or drug dependent behavior in a person who has previously achieved and maintained abstinence for a significant period of time beyond withdrawal. UnfortunatelyRead MoreSubstance Abuse and Treatment for Adolescents2174 Words   |  9 Pages†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..†¦ 3-4 Outcomes †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..†¦ 4 Treatment †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 4-7 Conclusion †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 7 References †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦...†¦.. 8-10 Substance Abuse and Treatment for Adolescents Introduction Substance abuse among adolescents is becoming an increasing concern. There are the obvious health issues associated with substance abuse, but many people do not consider the long term affects of drug and alcohol use. In this

The Importance Of Fire Safe Shelter Environmental Sciences Essay Free Essays

1.0 Introduction Presents, high rise edifice has become the icon of the metropolis. Many tall edifice are constructed to carry through the increasing demand of commercial and residential development. We will write a custom essay sample on The Importance Of Fire Safe Shelter Environmental Sciences Essay or any similar topic only for you Order Now Millions of people stay and work in tower block edifice due to population and economic has been increased. Fire safety has been concern to protect their life and belongings. To guarantee the safety of the edifices and their users, the safety system and equipment should parallel with the criterion of demands and has a good execution of safety direction. Although high-rise edifices are provided with the most sophisticated safety characteristics, confidence of safety to constructing users is still questionable. Therefore, fire safe shelter has been introduced to supply better fire safety design in tower block edifice. This survey has been developed with the purpose to reexamine the importance of fire safe shelter design in tower block edifice and to overview the current fire safety design on tower block edifice, and giving recommendation to better the pattern. The methodological analysis is conducted the survey included literature reappraisal, analysis of consequences and informations aggregation. The procedure of informations aggregation is collected toward the primary informations by carry oning questionnaire studies to the respondents at the selected edifices instance surveies and from the writer A ; acirc ; ˆâ„ ¢s observation. From the survey, it was found that how the fire safety shelter integrates in fire safety design to protect the civilian in the edifices. 2.0 Issue Statement: In recent old ages, fire onslaught in high rise edifice has become the common issue which cause many civilian deceases and injured. Civilians are remaining in high rise edifice unable to get away because they are excessively high from the land. The fright of the civilian besides caused the job which makes them unable to get away. Although fire exigency issue are provided, it is excessively slow for civilian stayed in high top of the edifice to get away. The opportunity of them to get away is low. Another job is hard for fire combatants to make the upper floors. For illustration, the highest fire truck ladder can be reached in many metropoliss merely can widen to the eight floors. In order to snuff out fire above that point, fire combatants must mount up many of stepss which carry along fire hosieries and other heavy equipment. High-rise edifices are designed to be safe. When come to many civilian stay at tall edifice, exigency response is become more hard to evacuate civilians out of the edifice. What tallness is considered tower block? A tower block is defined as any edifice above 15 m or four floors in tallness or whichever is more. All tower blocks are required to supply fire protection agreements prescribed by the National Building Code ( NBC ) and the National Electricity Code ( NEC ) . These include a fire flight, fire pump and storage armored combat vehicle at the land degree, lift, lightning protection device, fire dismay, asphyxiators, etc. There are many instances related to fire incident. For illustration, the incident go on on Twin Towers of the World Trade Center in New York City wholly collapsed merely over one hr after fires raged in them upon the clang of two aeroplanes into them on 11 September 2001. This entire incident caused 2795 dead. The causes of edifices prostration was the terrible weakening of the supporting strength of the towers ‘ steel-based supporting construction under utmost heat. Besides, the high-rise flat fire in Shanghai on15 November 2010 has become attending for people around the universe. This incident has taken 53 people and injured 70 casualties. This incident happen cause by the flicker during welding work. Furthermore, there is another fire incident happen in Busan on October 2010. Based on the study, there are no casualties were reported as most occupants were dispersed after the fire broke out. Fire combatants rescued 31 occupants, four of casualties were sent to the infirmary f or intervention. Based on the probe, people suspect the cause happen from the fire started at the refuse room on the 4th floor which is extremely flammable wall stuff and strong air currents seemingly fuelled the fire. Based on incidents have been highlighted, the fire safety design needs to be considered more critically for all the high rise edifice. 3.0 Research Question: 1 ) What is the shelter design demand for high rise edifice? 2 ) The consciousness of residents about fire safe shelter. 4.0 Purposes: The purpose of this research is to entree the demand for fire safety means in high rise edifices. 5.0 Aim: 1 ) To detect how best to better fire safety by utilizing fire safe shelter. 2 ) To suggest solution on how to incorporate the fire safety design in high rise edifice. 6.0 Scope: This research will discourse the design of shelters to protect against fire onslaught. The design of such shelters requires attending to jobs such as the figure of residents remaining or working in such edifice and besides the high of the edifice will impact the design of shelter. The introducing of this fire safety system can take to better protection in order to cut down hazard of danger from residents. Besides, the counter steps for high rise edifice fire besides need to be considered to cover with big hazard as follow, 1. Protection against fire and fume 2. Emptying 3. Fire-fighting 4. Protection against prostration 7.0 Proposed Methodology In order to accomplish the aims have been stated, the research will be carried out in measure by stairss. First of all, place the aims and range needed for this research. Second follow by carry oning literature reappraisal about issue on fire incident happen in high rise edifice and the map of fire safety shelter presently utilizing on tower block edifice. This procedure will assist in better apprehension on the research subject and incorporate the cognition to the proposed topic. Besides, professional interviews with the designer and applied scientist besides will be conducted related to the fire safety shelter in safety design. Question checklist will be provided in item to forestall any missing inquiry during interview. Furthermore, questionnaire study besides will be conducted towards the respondents remaining in tower block edifice. The consequence will be collected and proceed to roll up the consequence and behavior analysis. Final will be provided a presentation based on the a nalyzed information and besides the concluding study include the decision and recommendation. How to cite The Importance Of Fire Safe Shelter Environmental Sciences Essay, Essay examples

Financial Management Practices or Systems-Free-Samples for Students

Question: Discuss about the Financial Management Practices or Systems. Answer: Introduction Financial Management is a subject dealing with the financial decisions open division endeavors make, and the instruments and examination used to settle on the decisions. The prepare with everything taken into account may be disconnected from whole deal and without a moment's hesitation decisions and methodology. Both offer a comparable target of enhancing an affiliation's a motivator by ensuring that landing of capital outperforms the cost of capital. As indicated by Ahmed Mohamed (2017), managing financials refers to the idea of cash, time; what's more, risk and the way they are interconnected. On the sector point, financial management consist of timely costs as indicated by the financial resources of a specific hierarchical perspective. The process of financial management concerns financial control and arrangement. Present day approach of financial management basically offers a theoretical and expository system for simple financial management. It underscores the compelling utilization of assets. As shown in this method, financial management could be separated into unique sets: financing, dividend, and investment sets. Literature Review As per Aula (2010), financial management practices are characterized as the practices performed by the bookkeeping officer, the CFO, and different administrators in the regions of planning, production network management, resource management, and control. The most widely recognized financial management practices utilized are, Financial Reporting and Analysis (FRA), Accounting Data Systems (ADS), Capital Structure Management (CSM) and Fixed Asset Management (FAM). Each of these practices is critical for a proficient financial management in associations (Alexandre Nicols, 2016). Accounting Information System or ADS show an organized structure inside a component that uses physical resources (i.e., materials, supplies, staff, equipment, stores) to change fiscal data into financial information for; coordinating the affiliation's operations and activities and giving information concerning the substance to a grouping of captivated customers. Doubtlessly, the mix or association between human, advancement, and strategies would enable a relationship to coordinate its data effectively. Working capital is a bit of an organization's available assets. Dependent upon the source, working capital, can be portrayed in different ways. Working capital is described as an association's total enthusiasm for current assets or assets that an association wants to be changed over into cash inside a year or less. The enthusiasm for working capital incorporates passing on costs and need costs, so the associations need to find the tradeoff between them. Various investigations have likewise been embraced locally and globally on the branch of knowledge of Public Finance. For example, a World Bank Report on Public Financial Management Reforms expressed that there was still a ton to be done to enhance planning and public financial management. Chiefly highlighting that basic difficulties too great public financial management since most changes actualized are grouped around the spending definition arrange, while changes at alternate phases of the spending procedure are especially spending execution and inspecting fall behind. This is a typical rate for some undertakings in the public sector amid their planning procedure. Case Analysis The objective populace of the examination involved public sector enterprises. The investigation utilized quantitative and subjective techniques for information gathering. Alfonso et al., (2010) depicts quantitative information accumulation as speaking to marvels by allotting numbers in a requested and significant way, while subjective information gathering is fundamentally exploratory research. The examination utilized both essential and optional information. Essential information was gathered by a method for self-controlled drop and pick polls which were disseminated to fund directors for reaction. The poll had both open and close-ended inquiries. The close-ended inquiries gave most organized reactions to encourage unmistakable proposals. The open-ended inquiries give extra data that might not have been caught in the nearby ended inquiries. Optional information sources were utilized using past archives, for example, the Financial Statements, yearly reports and data access in the World Bank Website and also the related sites to supplement the information got from surveys (Watkins et al., 2012). Finished polls were altered for fulfillment and consistency. The information was then coded and checked for any mistakes and oversights. Illustrative insights into specific means and standard deviation will be utilized to decipher reactions to the survey. Discussion In a situation of restricted assets, it is basic that legislature is capable of taking an educated view while organizing and assigning its assets, and that where conceivable it maintains a strategic distance from here and now and incremental basic leadership. In any case, our give an account of figuring out how to spending plan in government recognized limitations on government's capacity to organize spending adequately. The budgetary framework tends to the Treasury's goals for prioritization and incentive for cash, yet less viable than the target for spending control. The budgetary framework additionally needs clear connects to comes about and is deficiently incorporated with business arranging. In the Spending Review, the Treasury's different asset and capital activities did not advance thought of the connections between these territories of spending, obstructing the general prioritization of assets. The greater part of the administration's program and organization spending is regressed to neighborhood public bodies. Local Authorities have for the most part consumed focal government financing declines to date. Nonetheless, they are confronting expanding troubles in retaining additional costs. Effectively making financial reserve funds while keeping up benefit conveyance requires financial management capacity in neighborhood public bodies. The local government needs to guarantee that the impacts of choices about the financing it gives to neighborhood bodies are comprehended, and that bookkeeping officers can give confirmation about framework wide incentive for cash. The focal government, in this way, needs to distinguish fitting management data, and have an adequate scientific capacity, to satisfy these parts (Ardjan Luca, 2013). Conclusion There are indications of change in financial management in government, and also a more noteworthy acknowledgment of the vital signs of the fund calling. Qualified back experts are better spoken to a senior level. There have been changes in key financial procedures. While there is still considerably more to do, the government is additionally making positive strides with the point of enhancing management data. Regardless of these changes, the size of the test for back directors in government is stark. While the government has prevailed in various regions in controlling spending, regardless it faces a critical test in overhauling and changing public administrations with the goal that they work reasonably with regards to encourage diminishments to departmental spending, nearby expanded request. References Ahmed A. Oussii Mohamed F. Klibi. (2017). Accounting students perceptions of important business communication skills for career success: An exploratory study in the Tunisian context. Journal of Financial Reporting and Accounting, 15(2), 208-225. Alexandre P. Nicols C. (2016). Indirectly productive entrepreneurship. Journal of Entrepreneurship and Public Policy, 5(2), 161-175. Alexandre P. and Nicols C. (2016). Indirectly productive entrepreneurship. Journal of Entrepreneurship and Public Policy, 5(2), 161-175. Alfonso Siano, Philip J. Kitchen, Maria G. Confetto. (2010). Financial resources and corporate reputation: Toward common management principles for managing corporate reputation. Corporate Communications: An International Journal, 15(1), 68-82. Ardjan Gazheli , Luca Di Corato. (2013). Land-use change and solar energy production: a real option approach. Agricultural Finance Review, 73(3), 507-525. Aula, P. K. (2010). Social media, reputation risk and ambient publicity management. Strategy Leadership, 38(6), 43-49. Hewlett, S.A., Jackson, M., Sherbin, L., Sosnovich, E., Sumberg, K. (2008). The under-leveraged talent pool: Women technologists on Wall Street. Retrieved from Center for Talent Innovation: https://www.talentinnovation.org/publication.cfm?publication=1090 Watkins R., Meisers M.W Visser Y. (2012). A guide to assessing Needs, Tools for collecting information, making decisions and acheiving development results. Washington: World Bank Publications.

Banned Books Essays - Book Censorship, Textual Scholarship

Banned Books I never heard of anyone who was really literate or who ever really loved books who wanted to suppress any of them. Censors only read a book with great difficulty, moving their lips as they puzzle out each syllable, when someone tells them that the book is unfit to read. ~Robertson Davies Throughout all of history, human beings have been continuously seeking new mediums of communication, specifically for the purpose of exchanging ideas and information. This has been done in a series of ways, including spoken language, hand gestures, and, most importantly, the written word. The written word has an advantage over all other forms of communication, for it allows many people access to information otherwise unavailable; a story heard can be easily misconstrued and passed incorrectly, while a physical representation remains solid, and may be reproduced in large numbers, making it available to many people at the same time. With this benefit, ideas, facts, and opinions may be spread to diverse groups of people, spawning fresh ideas and advances in most every field of human development. When the first moveable type was invented by the Greeks in 1700B.C., making it possible to transfer hieroglyphics onto clay disks, an almost immediate explosion of philosophy and education began to develop as a direct result (Banned Books screen 1). Years later, the Chinese developed the very first books -- blocks of bamboo bound with silk -- doing for communication what nuclear energy did for fire. From there, the book went through a slow evolution, eventually reaching the form that we are familiar with today. Such a vast sharing of knowledge doesn't come without consequences, however. When opinions are made readily available to a large group of people, beliefs clash, provoking anger and insecurity. For example, in Athens, Socrates was sentenced to death by the Athenian Assembly for his writings which glorified male homosexuality, among other things(DeCamp 4). When a piece of literature doesn't conform to older ideals or questions a widely practiced religion, people tend to take dramatic action, even going as far as to ban the work or editing it, only allowing filtered bits to reach the intended public. This practice, known as censorship, forces thousands of eager readers to yield to the ideals and standards of others. Although this is disgustingly un-American, this is commonly practiced in schools, libraries, and book stores, and is most often spurred on by an angry parent, demanding their child not be corrupted by such vulgar, radical ideas (Heins 8). In a classroom setting, complaints s uch as the above are commonplace, and a surprising number of these complaints are carried through to the fullest extent, that being the barring of a certain title from the classroom. This is partly done on fear that comes from teachers and school boards who dread either a lawsuit or a grim reputation. What threatens us today is fear. Not the atom bomb, nor even fear of it, because if the bomb fell...tonight, all it would do would be to kill us, which is nothing, since in doing that, it will have robbed itself of it's only power over us; which is fear of it, the being afraid of it. Our danger is not that. Our danger is the forces in the world today which are trying to use man's fear to rob him of his individuality, his soul, trying to reduce him to an unthinking mass of fear... (Faulkner, quoted in Noble 43). This seems to be a growing, dangerous trend; a single group of parents becoming censors for an entire group of children, even those who do not share the adult's point of view. It seems that overnight we have all of these self-appointed advocates of clean literature, says Gene Lanier, Chairman of Library Science at East Carolina University. A book is easier to burn than to explain (quoted in Noble 119). This statement holds a startling amount of truth, for when a book is banned, it is usually carried out by a small group of fist-shakers who all subscribe to a similar set of ideals, say, Christianity. Something offensive to perhaps a few individuals of a certain faith, but not to the many others who want to read the book is still

On Being a Travel Writer for AAA

On Being a Travel Writer for AAA Wanderlust bit me early – as a toddler skipping stones across the Great Lakes, and as a young girl fishing with Dad in the Florida Keys. I’d often dreamed of being a travel writer. After attending the 2011 Missouri Writer’s Guild conference, I had the opportunity to connect with the editor of AAA Midwest Traveler and AAA Southern Traveler. She requested writing samples I’d penned on travel. I jumped at the chance, and emailed her a feature article on horse drawn sleigh-riding published in Missouri Life, two stories on Folly Beach, South Carolina published in The Folly Current, and a personal essay on scuba diving. The editor enjoyed my stories and mailed me a contract for a Caribbean feature article, â€Å"Inside the Bahamas Out Islands,† covering romance in Great Guana Cay, Abaco; Hopetown Elbow Cay’s history, and water sports in Eleuthera, Bahamas. The contract recapped the story idea, provided formatting guidelines, word count, due date, contracted amount, and assignment letter. AAA article prices are preset, so there was no negotiation. After signing and returning the paperwork, I used the assignment letter to contact tourism offices in the locale I was visiting. Sometimes perks are offered After arriving at a resort, I meet with the Public Relations Manager or General Manager to discuss the resort’s unique features and secure quotes pertinent to the article. Perks have included butlered-stays at Sandals Emerald Bay, Exuma, behind the scenes tours at Churchill Downs, an upgrade to an oceanfront beach house in the Bahamas, and an all-day fast-boat adventure in the Exuma Cays. I cherish these comps as I never know when I’ll receive them. As with any story, it’s important to â€Å"Show, Don’t Tell,† a pearl of wisdom I learned as a member of my writing group Saturday Writers. The aroma of the frangipani, the cool ocean mist touching skin, the tangerine and blue violet sunset, all add to the experience. Creating visual images places the reader in the moment. Anything less cheats them. Carrying a variety of cameras helps me connect the dots at a later date, especially if I can’t remember if the hibiscus floating in the sunken tub was red-orange or magenta, or the shape of water droplets in a tide pool were round or oval. I carry a small notebook with me at all times, especially when I’m writing on ocean adventures when a computer isn’t feasible. While on a 007 Thunderball adventure tour in the Exuma Cays, we stopped to feed iguanas, snorkel in the grotto where the James Bond movie Thunderball was filmed, and skip on the sand at Galiot Cay sandbar. Experiences are key in travel writing. When writing about spa-cations then The query period for AAA is open from January through April. Assignments are set shortly thereafter, with deadlines the following year, unless otherwise stated. Source and contact information should be supplied to your editor, whether at AAA or otherwise, which includes names, addresses, emails, websites, and phone numbers for anyone you’ve interviewed or photographed. AAA verifies source information and fact checks the article closer to the date. When you add up all the adventures, people met, and land traversed, it’s not a bad gig. The fact that I’m able to combine my love of traveling with writing and photography is a blessing. And I’ve made many friends along the way.

Does Global Marketing Exist Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Does Global Marketing Exist - Essay Example The best thing is that the benefits and disadvantages are determined even before the organization goes the global way and thus it saves itself from embarrassment which it might face without having proper knowledge and adequate research within it. The significant thing here is to get prepared and be ready for what is to come in the future as concerns to the organization that one is talking about here. The ways and means that are usually taken care of whilst managing a business are aplenty and it is only up to the top management within a company that the same can be handled in a several different methods. They are the ones to decide as to what is the real manner in which the firm’s operations would be handled as well as who will head the respective departments, lead the business strategic units and act as legal and media representatives of the said business. The business, as marketers say, exists to satisfy its target audience through fulfilling a need courtesy its products and/or services or a combination of the both, the same being true in case of a retail outlet which sells gasoline to local consumers, thus giving in petrol plus extra services in the form of window cleaning, fuel gauge checks and so on and so forth. A company or an organization needs sound management framework at its top so that the staff and the employees working at different levels feel at ease with th e job as well as the working environment. This indeed is very important as it builds long-term credibility of the organization that it cares about its employees and not just the customers and in cases profits and revenues only. (Knight, 2004) A formal organization takes into account the role of leadership at the top and the manner in which this leadership is basically carried about, both in the interests of the people within the company as well as the company itself so that the end result is one on which everyone solemnly agree,

Operational Analysis and Effectiveness Case Study

Operational Analysis and Effectiveness - Case Study Example Operations as defined by Heizer is the management of production of goods and services that add value to the firm. Thus, operations cannot be ignored any wherelets first analyze briefly what actually is the function of an airline industry. Airline industry provides services to its customers by transporting them from one destination to another be it international, national, regional or simply for cargo purposes. The operations issues that are important and critical include airport capacity, route structures, technology and costs to lease or buy the physical aircrafts1. Some of the larger issues that organizations face every time are the weather conditions, fuel costs and labor. Since weather effects flight schedules and is quite variable and naturally unpredictable; weather extremes such as snow, fog, and extreme temperatures can halt the operations of the air transport and hence add to costs both in terms of opportunity cost and the physical cost already incurred. Without fuel, no aero plane could fly, fuel costs comprise around 17-18% of the total cost of the airline company. For managing fuel efficiency the air transportation management should schedule flights properly as for example short haul flights are less fuel efficient as greater part is consumed in landing and take off. Labor is very important, which includes all sorts of labor and skills, flight attendants, pilots, baggage handl ers, dispatchers, customer services, air hosts and hostesses etc. The critical activities2 of an airline industry include demand forecasting, network design, revenue management, route planning, airline schedule planning, irregular operations aircraft routing, integrated scheduling, real time crew management, crew pairing optimization, air traffic flow management, crew rostering, air traffic simulation and control, and also coping with the concerned authorities' control program. Now the critical activities are discussed independently, and the relevant outcome and importance is also specified. Demand forecasting by airlines It is important for an air transportation industry to forecast demand levels correctly, as the management of demand can help in maximizing revenues as much as possible. And since demand for air travel seems to have been growing at the multiples of GDP therefore the need becomes more pronounced. And, there is a need to understand the demand for airlines industry is of two types, viz. underlying growth and the induced growth. The underlying growth in demand occurs as a reason of naturally occurring external factors in the environment;

Motivation based on the Video Case.Dick Learns About Tipping Case Study

Motivation based on the Video .Dick Learns About Tipping - Case Study Example It can either be positive or negative. In the video, Dick Solomon promises the waitress that there is one pile of one dollar bills and calls it ‘potential tip’(stimulant). This indicates that the tip will not just be unleashed for the normal service but for satisfactory service (the desire). He then tells the waitress that if he is pleased, the pile of the tip grows (positive reinforcement). Otherwise if unsatisfied, the pile shrinks (negative stimulus). As the waitress places the drinks on the table, she serves Mary the Dick’s drunk and vice versa. At that point, Dick interchanges the drinks and goes further to penalize the waitress for that mistake as they earlier agreed. The waitress does not know the salad dressings and again the pile shrinks. On bringing the dressings, the first one doesn’t appeal Dick and he goes on to deduct the tip but on tasting the second one, he finds it nice and adds some more bills to the tip. The waitress now more enthusiastic comes with two alternatives of what the two would have for dinner. Dick is dissatisfied by the options and decides to reduce the tip. At that point the waitress reactions show displeasure (the undesirable behavior). The expectancy theory assumes that people will perform better when they believe money will follow effective performance (Spector, p. 235-257). If money has a positive value for an individual, higher performance is expected (the waitress is happy when a tip is proposed). For a staff, outcomes are outcomes that are highly valued and high expectations will direct a person to make greater effort in the task (depicted by the waitress enthusiasm). In this video, Dick’s strategy was not successful. This is depicted where Mary has to come in between Dick and the waitress to be a reconciler. Mary decides to pay the meals as she saw that both Dick and the waitress were unpleased by each other. To increase the success of his attempts to motivate the waitress, Dick could hav e employed the Goal-setting theory of motivation. This theory explains how goal setting importantly relates to job performance. It states that clear and challenging goals with feedback lead to better job performance (Locke, Edwin, & Gary, p388). Goals give direction of what is expected thus indicates the efforts required. In this scenario of Dick, he could have stated from the word go what he specifically wanted. He ordered the drinks well without waiting for the waiter to suggest for him the variety of drinks they served. Similarly, he could have done so for the meal. In so doing, it would have been easier for the waitress to serve them efficiently because the goals are specific, clear, and realistic. The waitress serving her clients was an enough motivator for her to see her clients (Dick and Mary) satisfied. Again, if Dick’s feedback was appropriate as it is advocated for in this theory, the waitress could have served them better. After the waitress mentioned the type of m eal they offered, Dick just rushed to reducing the tip. Instead, he could have explained his displeasure and could have been served well. Tommy and Harry’s behavior was influenced by equity and reinforcement theories. Equity theory advocates the principle of balance, fairness and justice. Ones motivational level is thus measured against his level of perception of equity. In our case, when Tommy is standing he receives tips from two passersby while Harry who is sited receives from one passerby. On realizing this,

Effects of Physiological Reproductive Events on Ovary

Effects of Physiological Reproductive Events on Ovary Chapter one Introduction Background The two majors function of the ovary is the differentiation and release of female gametes (oocyte), which can then be successfully fertilised and ensure the survival of species. The ovary is also an endocrine organ that produces steroid hormones that allow the development of female secondary sexual characteristics and supports pregnancy. The mammalian ovary is covered by a single layer of epithelial cells (surface epithelium), which vary in type from simple squamous to cuboidal to low pseudostratified columnar (Anderson et al. 1976). Directly underneath the surface epithelium there is a layer of dense connective tissue known as the tunica albuginea. The mammalian ovary is a heterogeneous organ containing follicles and corpora lutea at various stages of development. The ovarian follicle is the fundamental unit of the ovary, each follicle consists of an oocyte, surrounded by granulosa cells and outer layer of theca cells ( 1.2 Folliculogenesis During embryogenesis, primordial germ cells (PGCS) migrate from the yolk sac through the dorsal mesentery of the hindgut, to the genital ridge. The germ cells then undergo extensive proliferation, and lose their motile characteristics, in addition, somatic cells derived from the mesenchyme of the genital ridge, proliferate as well (Hirshfield 1991). The germ cells cease mitotic division and form association with small numbers of pre-granulosa cells to form primordial follicle (Telfer et al. 1988). The germ cells undergo the first meiotic division and are now called primary oocytes. The oocytes then become arrested in the diplotene stage of prophase I of meiosis until the primordial follicles start to grow and finally reach the ovulatory stage. In the diplotene stage, the oocyte may prepare itself for rapid mitosis and implantation, by producing large amounts of mRNA and ribosomes (Picton et al. 1998). Primordial follicles may be observed from week 22 in the human (Faddy and Gosden 19 95) and week 13 in the cow (van den Hurk and Zhao 2005). The pool of primordial follicles develops during fetal life in some species (e.g primates, ruminants), but in others it develops during the early neonatal period (e.g rodents, rabbits) (Marion et al. 1971). The number of primordial follicles present at birth represents the total population of germ cells available to mammalian females during their entire reproductive life (Kezele et al. 2002), and is believed to serve as the source of developing follicles and oocytes (Eppig 2001). Although recent studies have suggested that postnatal oogenesis may also occur in female mammals (Johnson et al. 2004), they suggested that germline stem cells can repopulate the postnatal ovary and renew the primordial follicle pool. This group subsequently went on to suggest that these cells were derived from bone marrow (Johnson et al. 2005). This has attracted a great deal of attention as well as criticism (Gosden 2004; Byskov et al. 2005; Telfer et al. 2005). This is an ongoing debate but the balance of evidence suggests that renewal is not a major factor in ovarian development (Eggan et al. 2006). In mammals, the number of primordial follicles in the ovaries at birth varies enormously between species, ranging from tens of thousands in mice to millions in humans and domestic species (Gosden and Telfer 1987). These follicles must develop through primordial, primary and secondary stages before reaching the preovulatory stage, and subsequent ovulation (Figure 1.1). Proper follicle development involves maturation of the oocyte, which is surrounded by variable layers of granulosa cells, enveloped by theca cells (Drummond 2005). Granulosa cells provide physical support of the oocyte and mediate signals between the oocyte, outer theca cells and endocrine hormones. Once the pool of primordial follicles has been established, follicles gradually and continually leave the resting pool to begin growth. However, less than 1% of primordi al follicles present at the time of birth of an animal will ever proceed to ovulation (Erickson 1966), with the majority of follicles degenerating by atresia. 1.3 Regulation of early folliculogenesis A critical process in ovarian biology is the transition of the developmentally arrested primordial follicle to the developing primary follicle. Follicular growth may begin at any time during the females life. The primordial follicle contains an oocyte arrested in meiosis I surrounded by flattened somatic cells termed the pregranulosa (Kezele et al. 2002). During onset of primordial follicle growth, flattened pregranulosa cells become cuboidal and begin to proliferate. The enclosed oocyte begins to grow at the same time (Anderson et al. 2000; Clark and Eddy 1975). The growths of both the primordial follicles with oocytes characterize the initiation of the growing phase. The oocytes within the primordial follicles remain quiescent for months to years until they receive the appropriate signals to initiate folliculogenesis and primordial to primary follicle transition. So far, little is known about the molecular mechanisms and extracellular signalling factors that regulate this process. These processes directly affect the number of oocytes available to a female throughout her reproductive life. Once the pool of primordial follicles is depleted, ovarian steroidogenesis ends and the series of physiological changes called menopause begins (Richardson et al. 1987). It is unclear whether the signals originate from the oocyte, or/and from surrounding somatic cells, or from outside the ovary. It is also unknown if it is an inhibitory factor preventing resting primordial follicles from leaving the stock or a stimulus acting on the resting primordial follicles store that stimulates some follicle to leave it (Gougeon and Busso 2000). A multitude of factors may act locally to regulate early folliculogenesis by promoting growth (Bennett et al. 1996) or by inhibiting growth (Bukovsky et al. 1995). The initial growth signal appears to be independent of the pitui tary gonadotropins (Peters et al. 1975) (Figure 1.3). Primordial follicles do not possess receptors for FSH hormone (Oktay et al. 1997). Despite some studies suggesting that gonadotropins are involved in the initiation of follicular growth in immature rodents (Lintern-Moore 1977; Neal and Baker 1973), nevertheless, during natural hypopituitary conditions in both animal species and humans, the initiation process is not completely abolished (Howe et al. 1978; Halpin et al. 1986). Although follicles at early stages of development have been shown to express follicle stimulating hormone receptors (FSH-R) (Bao et al. 1998), in the absence of gonadotropins during the early stages of follicle growth, follicles can still develop to the early antral stage (Awotwi et al. 1984; Gong et al. 1996). Knockout mice who are null mutants for either FSH receptor or LH receptor are able to undergo the primordial to primary follicle transition (Zhang et al. 2001; Abel et al. 2000). Several local factors have been found that can regulate the primordial to primary follicle transition. Bone morphogenetic protein-7 (BMP-7) has been shown to promote the primordial to primary follicle transition and to increase granulosa cell proliferation (Lee et al. 2001). Leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF) has also been shown to promote the primordial to primary follicle transition and to up-regulate granulosa cell expression of kit ligand (KL) (Nilsson et al. 2002). Bone morphogenic protein-15 (BMP-15) is a growth factor expressed in the oocytes of developing follicles that plays a role in early follicle progression (Dube et al. 1998) and stimulates granulosa cell proliferation (Otsuka et al. 2000). Growth differentiation factor-9 (GDF-9) has been localized inthe oocytes of mouse (Dong et al. 1996) rat (Jaatinen et al. 1999) and human (Aaltonen et al. 1999) primary follicles. Nilsson and Skinner (2002) have shown that GDF-9 promotesthe development of primary follicles in neonatal r at ovaries,but it has no effect on the growth of primordial follicles (Nilsson and Skinner 2002).Studies by Wang and Roy (2004) have provided the first evidence that GDF-9 can promote the formation of primordialfollicles and their subsequent growth in neonatal hamster ovaries (Wang and Roy 2004) . Anti-Mullerian hormone (AMH) is a member of the transforming growth factor- ÃŽ ² (TGF-ÃŽ ²) is considered as a negative regulator of the early stages of follicular development. AMH is produced by the granulosa cells of developing preantral and small antral follicles which inhibits the primordial to primary follicle transition (Durlinger et al. 1999). AMH is never found in primordial follicles, theca cells or oocytes (Ueno et al. 1989; Hirobe et al. 1994; Baarends et al. 1995). Examination of ovarian follicles in AMH-deficient female mice revealed lower numbers of primordial follicles and more growing follicles compared with wild-type mice, these findings revealed that, in the absence of AMH, ovaries are depleted of their primordial follicles earlier than they are in control mice and these observations led to the propsal that AMH inhibits primordial follicle recruitment (Durlinger et al. 1999). Results were obtained from another in vitro experiments on the bovine ovarian cortex sugges ted that, at least in nonhuman species, the presence of AMH acts as a brake on the activation of primordial follicles and the growth of preantral follicles (Gigli et al. 2005). It has been demonstrated that oocytes from early preantral, late preantral and preovulatory follicles up-regulate AMH mRNA levels in granulosa cells, in a fashion that is dependent upon the developmental stage of the oocyte (Salmon et al. 2004). These findings suggest that oocyte regulation of AMH expression may play a role in intra- and interfollicular coordination of follicle development. ; kit ligand (KL) and basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) secreted by pre-granulosa cells and oocyte respectively, have mutual stimulatory effects on oocytes and granulosa cells; they also promote recruitment of theca cells from the surrounding stromal/interstitial cell population. Stromal/interstitial cells and theca cells secrete BMP-4 and BMP-7, which promote follicle activation and survival. GDF-9 and/or BMP-15 secreted by the oocyte of the activated follicle promote granulosa cell proliferation, KL expression and theca formation. Granulosa cells of growing follicles secrete AMH that appears to act as a ‘brake on primordial follicle recruitment (Knight and Glister 2006). Foxo3a (FKHRL1), a member of the FOXO subfamily of forkhead transcription factors, has been implicated in the regulation of follicle activation. It has been indicated that Foxo3a functions at the earliest stages of follicular growth as a suppressor of follicular activation (Castrillon et al. 2003). It was suggested that Foxo3a serves an essential role by suppressing the growth of primordial follicles, thereby preserving them until later in life (John et al. 2007). It was shown that Foxo3a -/-ovaries contained markedly elevated numbers of early growing follicles, and this extensive of follicular growth in Foxo3a -/- females resulted in the progression of increased numbers of follicles to more advanced stages of follicular development and this misregulation of this process can lead to premature ovarian failure (Castrillon et al. 2003). Kit ligand (KL) is produced by the granulosa cells of developing ovaries (Manova et al. 1993; Ismail et al. 1996) and KL receptors (c-kit) are present on oocytes and theca cells (Manova et al. 1990). C-kit is expressed at the surface of mammalian oocytes at all stages of follicular development in postnatal ovaries of the mouse, the rat and humans (Driancourt et al. 2000; Horie et al. 1991; Manova et al. 1990; Orr-Urtreger et al. 1990) and its only known ligand, Kit-ligand (KL), which is also referred to as stem cell factor (SCF). KL acts to recruit theca cells from surrounding ovarian stroma during folliculogenesis (Parrott and Skinner 2000). Therfore, KL is thought to act as a signal from the granulosa cells around primordial follicles to the oocyte and surrounding stroma to promote the events of the primordial to primary follicle transition (Parrott and Skinner 1999). In this study (Parrott and Skinner 1999), treatment of in vitro cultured follicles from postnatal ovaries from 4 da y old rats, with KL dramatically induced the development of primordial follicles, but was completely blocked by the Kit antibody ACK2. 1.4 Follicle development Follicular development is regulated by both endocrine and intraovarin mechanisms which co-ordinate the processes of somatic cell proliferation and differentiation (Moley and Schreiber 1995). The basic functional unit in the ovary is the ovarian follicle that is composed of somatic cells and developing oocyte. The two primary somatic cell types are the theca cells and granulosa cells. These two somatic cell types are the site of action and synthesis of a number of hormone that promote a complex regulation of follicular development. The prolifetation of these two cell types is in part responsible for the development of the antral ovarian follicle. At the same time, the oocyte is undergoing developmental changes necessary to allow the resumption of meiosis after the preovulatory surge of gonadotrophins (Montgomery et al. 2001). This regulation occurs according to endocrine principles, involving hormones such as pituitary gonadotropins , ovarian steroids and locally produced factors that act either on the cell that produces them (autocrine) or on neighbouring cells (paracrine) (Salha et al. 1998). Ovarian follicular development is a long process which can take around 6 months from the initiation of growth of primordial follicles until development of a preovulatory follicle in humans, cattle and sheep (Lussier et al. 1987; Cahill and Mauleon 1980) and around 4 months in pigs (Morbeck et al. 1992). The majority of this time is spent in the pre-antral stages of development. Already at this stage, a considerable proportion of growing follicles fail to survive and they degenerate through a process termed follicular atresia. Observations in humans and in animals suggest that apoptosis is the mechanism of follicular atresia (Tilly 1996; Kaipia and Hsueh 1997). In women, the dominant follicle orginates from primordial follicle that was recruited to grow almost 1 year earlier Folliculogenesis can be divided into two stages: the gonadotropin-independent (preantral) and gonadotropin-dependent (antral or Graafian) periods (Erickson and Shimasaki 2000). Locally produced growth factors are critically involved in controlling preantral follicle development during the gonadotropin-independent period. After antraum formation, the follicle becomes dependent on FSH stimulation for continued growth and development. Interestingly, it was discovered that the process of folliculogenesis is controled by growth factors secreted by the oocyte (Matzuk 2000). Five growth factors have been identified in mamalian oocytes: growth differentiation factor-9 (GDF-9) (McGrath et al. 1995), bone morphogenetic protein -15 (BMP-15) (Dube et al. 1998; Laitinen et al. 1998), bone morphogenetic protein -6 (BMP-6) (Knight and Glister 2006), transforming growth factor -ÃŽ ²2 ( TGF-ÃŽ ²2) (Schmid et al. 1994), and fibroblast growth factor-8 (FGF-8) (Valve et al. 1997). Experiments with knockout mice have demonstrated that in the absence of GDF-9, folliculogenesis is blocked at the primary to preantral stage (Dong et al. 1996). Consequently, there are no Graafian follicles, no ovulations, and no pregnancies. 1.4.1 Follicular cell types and follicle classification The two primary somatic cell types in the ovarian follicle are the theca cells and granulosa cells. These two somatic cell types are the site of action and synthesis of a number of hormones that are involved in the complete regulation of follicular development. 1.4.1.1 Granulosa cells Granulosa cells are the primary somatic cell type in the ovary that provides a physical support of the oocyte and mediated signals between the oocyte, outer theca cells and endocrine hormone. Regulation of granulosa cell differentiation during folliculogenesis requires the actions of a number of hormones and growth factors. Specific receptors have been demonstrated on granulosa cells for gonadotropins follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) (Richards and Midgley, Jr. 1976). In addition, receptors have been found for factors such as insulin-like growth factor (IGF) (Adashi 1998) epidermal growth factor (EGF) (Vlodavsky et al. 1978) and anti-Mullerian hormone (AMH) (Josso et al. 2001). Actions of these hormones and growth factors on granulosa cells vary with the stage of differentiation. Follicular growth and steroidogenesis are dependent on the coordinated actions of FSH and LH with their receptors on granulosa cells and thecal cells of ovarian follicles. Both granulosal and thecal cells are involved in production of estradiol-17ÃŽ ² (two cell/two gonadotropin model which is well accepted for many species). 1.4.1.2 Theca cells Another important cell type in the ovary is the ovarian theca cell. These are differentiated stromal cells that surround the follicle and have also been termed theca interstitial cells (Erickson and Case 1983). The thecal cells can be distinguished as two distinct layers, the inner layer of cells, the theca interna has a basement membrane separating it from the outmost layer of granulosa cells. The theca interna is a highly vascular layer. One of the major functions of theca cells in species such as the cow, human and rodent is the secretion of androgens (Fortune and Armstrong 1977). At the primordial stage, no theca cells are present; however during the transition to the primary stage, theca cells at this stage of development are gonadotropin and steroid independent and non-steroidogenic (Braw-Tal and Roth 2005). Theca externa which is less vascularized layer and merges into the stromal tissue without clear boundaries. The ‘two-gonadotrophin, two-cell model of follicular estradiol biosynthesis According to the two-cell-two-gonadotrophin theory, the ovary has two cellular compartments that are driven independently by LH and FSH to produce ovarian steroids. Androgen production by theca cells is a function of LH, whereas aromatization of these androgens to oestradiol by granulosa cells is controlled by FSH (Gougeon 1996) (Figure 1.5). Androgen synthesis occurs in the theca interna regulated by LH, by expressing P450c17, the rate-limiting steroidogenic enzyme in androgen synthesis (Sasano et al. 1989). Theca interna are capable of synthesizing all the steroids from cholesterol to testosterone and are the major source of follicular androstenedione. In contrast, granulosa cells are the major source of follicular estradiol. Granulosa cells are intrafollicular sites of androgen metabolism (Ghersevich et al. 1994) and express aromatase P450arom (Whitelaw et al. 1992) this enzyme converts androgens to estrogens. FSH also induces granulosa cell LH receptors that are functionally coup led to aromatase. Thus, uniquely in the preovulatory follicle, both the synthesis of androgen (in theca cells) and its aromatization to estradiol (in granulosa cells) are directly regulated by LH (Fortune and Armstrong 1977). . In the theca, under the influence of LH, cholesterol is converted to pregnenolone and metabolised through a series of substrates ending in androgen production. The two-cell, two-gonadotrophin model comes into play with androgens produced by the theca cells transported to the granulosa cells where they are aromatised to oestrogens (Drummond 2006). 1.4.2 Classification of follicle stages In sheep, the stages of follicular development have been classified on the basis of the number of granulosa cells in the largest cross-section of follicles (McNatty et al. 1999), 1.4.3 Follicular development in primates 1.4.3.1 Oocyte growth and maturation Once follicles have been initiated to grow, the granulosa cells proliferate to form the different stages of follicular development (Telfer et al. 2000). During follicular activation and early development in mice, for example, the oocyte growth occurs rapidly with an approximatly 300-fold increase in volume during the 2-3 week growth phase (Wassarman and Albertini 1994), which is also accompanied by a 300-fold increase in RNA content (Sternlicht and Schultz 1981) and a 38-fold increase in absolute rate of protein synthesis (Schultz et al. 1979). These events are indicative of a period of cell growth with high metabolic activity (Wassarman and Albertini 1994). Oocytes complete most of their growth phase before the formation of a follicular antrum (Wassarman and Albertini 1994), and the increase in oocyte diameter and volume during antral follicular growth is relatively small (Eppig 2001; Wassarman and Albertini 1994). If the oocyte is to be capable of fertilization and subsequent embry onic development, it must acquire the ability to resume meiosis. Oocytes from immature follicles are unable to resume meiosis (Iwamatsu and Yanagimachi 1975) however, by the time the follicles have reached the antral stages the oocytes of most species have acquired the ability to resume meiosis (Mattioli and Barboni 2000; Telfer 1998). 1.4.3.2 Follicular growth Early in oocyte growth, a homogenous glycoprotein layer called the zona pellucida (ZP) is secreted shortly after initiation of follicular growth (Epifano and Dean 1994). It forms a translucent acellular layer separating the oocyte from the surrounding granulosa cells. However, contact between granulosa cells and the oocyte is maintained via cytoplasmic processes, which penetrate the zona and form gap junction at the oocyte surface. Progressively, follicles become secondary follicles. In addition to oocyte growth and granulosa cell proliferation, the preantral follicle also increases in size through formation and growth of ovarian stromal cells on the outer membrane of the follicle forming the theca layers of the follicle. The thecal cells can be distinguished as two distinct layers: highly vascular theca interna, surrounded by a fibrous capsule, the theca externa. The granulosa cells continue to proliferate, resulting in a further increase in follicular size. The formation of the follicular antrum marks the beginning of the antral phase of development. The appearance of an antral cavity starts with the development of small fluid-filled cavities that aggregate to form the antrum. As the follicular antrum grows, the oocyte, surrounded by a dense mass of granulosa cells called the cumulus oophorus which become suspended in fluid. It is connected to the rim of peripheral granulosa cells only by a thin stalk of cells. Attached to the zona pellucida, which surrounds the oocyte, is a small ring of granulosa cells called the corona radiata, these cells will be expelled with the oocyte during ovulation. In humans and monkeys, follicles pass from the preantral to the early antral stage at a follicular diameter between 180 and 250 ÃŽ ¼m (Koering 1983; Bomsel-Helmreich et al. 1979). Further, growth of the follicle is under the influence of follicle stimulating hormone (Gougeon 1996). The follicle is then termed a Graafian follicle. When the proper ho rmonal balance is present, normally one Graafian follicle in mono-ovulatory mammals (e.g. primates, ruminants, equine) and several ones in poly-ovulatory animals (e.g. rodent, porcine) fully develop and the oocyte matures and ovulate (Hafez 1993). 1.4.4 Regulation of follicular development 1.4.4.1 Oocytes somatic cell communication Oocyte growth is dependent on signals, growth factors and nutrients from granulosa cells; at the same time oocytes play an important role in the proliferation and differentiation of granulosa cells. Communication between oocytes and somatic cells have a crucial role in ovarian follicular development (Albertini and Barrett 2003; Eppig 2001). Several studies have shown the importance of oocyte-derived factors such as growth and differentiation factor-9 (GDF-9) and bone morphogenetic protein-15 (BMP-15) in female reproduction. GDF-9 and BMP-15 promote the proliferation of granulosa cells from small antral follicles (Hayashi et al. 1999; Vitt et al. 2000; Otsuka et al. 2000). Mutation of the GDF-9 gene in mice prevented the development of somatic cells beyond the primary follicle stages (Dong et al. 1996). C-kit receptor or (Kit) is expressed at the surface of mammalian oocytes at all stages of follicular development in postnatal ovaries of the mouse, the rat and humans (Driancourt et al . 2000b; Horie et al. 1991; Manova et al. 1993). An in vivo study by (Yoshida et al. 1997) has indicated the requirement for C-kit in development of the ovarian follicle in mice. In this study, postnatal mice were injected with Kit-blocking antibody ACK2, and the first wave of follicular development was studied. The blockade of Kit signalling was found to disturb the onset of primordial follicle development, primary follicle growth and follicular fluid formation of preantral follicles (Yoshida et al. 1997). On the other hand, primordial follicle formation, ovulation and luteinization of the ovulated follicle were not affected by ACK2 (Yoshida et al. 1997). 1.4.4.2 Gonadotropins Before the onset of puberty, the normal fate of growing follicles is atresia. After puberty, stimulation by cyclic gonadotropins allows the survival and continued growth with only a limited number of antral follicles that will reach the preovulatory stage. Activation and maintenance of normal follicular function is dependent on gonadotropins secreted by the pituitary. Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and Luteinizing hormone (LH) are glycoprotein, secreted by gonadotrophs in the anterior pituitary under the influence of hypothalamic GnRH (Gonadotrophin releasing hormone) neurones, which regulate the synthesis and secretion of those hormones). Gonadotropins are probably not involved in the initiation of follicle growth (Wandji et al. 1992; Fortune et al. 2000; McNatty et al. 1999). Whilst there may not be an absolute requirement for FSH at these early stages the presence of FSH receptor (FSHr) in granulosa cells of immature follicles in cow (Wandji et al. 1992), human (Zheng et al. 1 996) and sheep (Eckery et al. 1997) suggests an involvement. A role for LH in the early stages of development has not been described, although expression of LH receptor (LHr) mRNA is first detected when the theca interna forms around the granulosa cells (Bao et al. 1998; Bao and Garverick 1998). FSH and LH are involved in endocrine control of follicle development, FSH stimulates granulosa cell division and the formation of glycosaminoglycans that are essential components of antral fluid (Hillier 1991). FSH is vital for the formation of the antral cavity (Nayudu and Osborn 1992) in mouse ovarian follicles cultured in vitro. Granulosa cells are the only cells in the female body possess FSH receptors, and binding of FSH to its receptor on the cell surface altered expression of multiple genes crucial to cytoproliferation and differentiation (Richards 1994). Granulosa cell genes that are responsive to FSH include: aromatase (P450arom) the steroidogenic cytochrome P450 crucial to estrogen synthesis (Simpson et al. 1994); cholesterol side-chain cleavage (P450scc) (Richards 1994) and LH receptors (Segaloff and Ascoli 1993). FSH and LH are important factors for the proliferation and survival of follicular somatic cells and the cyclic recruitment of antral follicles. Suppression of serum gonadotropins after hypophysectomy leads to atresia and apoptosis of developing follicles (Nahum et al. 1996). Whereas FSH treatment of cultured early antral follicles prevents the spontaneous onset of follicular apoptosis (Chun et al. 1996). Although FSH is the central regulator of dominant follicle survival and development, LH signalling pathways play fundamental physiological roles. LH-dependent signal pathways in the theca interstitial cells induce changes in gene expression that are critical for estrogen production (Erickson et al. 1985). Activation of the LH receptors in theca cells leads directly to the stimulation of high levels of androstenedione production. The major physiolog ical significance of this LH response is to provide aromatase substrate to the granulosa cells where it is metabolized by P450 aromatase to E2. Additionally, the preovulatory surge of LH is responsible for ovulation and corpus luteum formation. Also, LH is essential for P4 and E2 production by the CL during the early and midluteal phase of the menstrual cycle. The hypothalamus produces and secretes luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone (LHRH) into a system of blood vessels that link the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland. LHRH stimulates the pituitary gland by attaching to specific molecules (i.e., receptors). After the coupling of LHRH with these receptors, a cascade of biochemical events causes the pituitary gland to produce and secrete two hormones, luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). LH and FSH are two of a class of hormones commonly known as gonadotropins. They are secreted into the general circulation and attach to receptors on the ovary, where they trigger ovulation and stimulate ovarian production of the hormones estrogen and progesterone. Adapted from (Kanis 1994) 1.4.4.3 Growth factors A number of locally produced growth factors are known to be important for follicle development, they exert paracrine communication within follicles. During preantral follicle development, growth factors such as epidermal growth factor (EGF), transforming growth factors (TGF) may influence folliculogenesis (van den and Zhao 2005). Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) (Danforth et al. 2003) and mullerian inhibitory substance (MIS) (McGee et al. 2001) have been reported to stimulate preantral follicle growth. It has been demonstrated that bone morphogenetic proteins (BMP) can alter bovine granulosa cell steroidogenesis and proliferation in vitro (Glister et al. 2004). Transforming growth factor-ÃŽ ² (TGF-ÃŽ ²) superfamily contains a range of proteins, including inhibins and activins. The precise roles of these factors are not known, but it is likely that they are involved in follicular differentiation by enhancing the action of gonadotropins (Campbell and Baird 2001; Knight and Gli ster 2001; Montgomery et al. 2001). Insulin growth factors (IGF) and their receptors play important role in follicle growth and development (Poretsky et al. 1999). The IGF family comprises of IGF peptides, IGF receptors which are family of proteins called insulin-like growth factor binding proteins (IGFBP) that regulate the availability of the IGF to their target cells, and IGFBP proteases (Giudice 1992). The IGFs affect biosynthetic processes in granulosa and theca cells and have an influence on mitotic activity in the granulosa cells (Giudice 1992; Poretsky et al. 1999). Additionally, a functional link between the IGF system and FSH action has been demonstrated by the finding that IGFBP-4 is a potent inhibitor of FSH

Comparing the New England and Chesapeake Colonists Essay -- essays pap

Comparing the New England and Chesapeake Colonists The New England and Chesapeake colonists settled in the new world for different reasons like religious freedoms in the North and quick profits in the South. Jamestown was originally an ideal place to strike it rich for the colonists. They didn't plan on staying long, therefore not bringing many women, as seen in Doc C. The early colony began to expand after the governors imposed laws and kept things running smooth. The Pilgrims who were seeking religious freedom from the Church of England established the Plymouth plantation in Massachusetts. The New England colonists brought more women because they planned on more of a permanent settlement; this is illustrated in the passenger list contained in Doc. B. They lived their lives for their god, not like the Chesapeake region, which was in it for the money. The colonists in the Chesapeake region started to make a profit with Tobacco and Indigo. Both products had a market in Europe. Many farmers moved farther and farther out of the colony for more land. This way they could produce more products, which would ultimately lead to overproduction and a decline in the selling price. The geography to the north around Massachusetts was a lot different. The soil was not very good for farming, but there were a lot of forests and natural ports. These features made that area ideal for shipbuilding and fishing. So the northern colonies became a big shipbuilding industry. So the North's output ...